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<div>Dear colleagues, </div><div><br /></div><div>It seems to me that in a pluralistic society a variety of codes are used in the communication. For example, politicians may discuss "energy politics" or a "shortage of energy" when they mean "energy carriers" such as oil. In thermodynamics, however, there can be no "shortage of energy" because energy is conserved. The concept of "energy" is differently coded in scholarly and political discourse.</div><div><br /></div><div>A science journalist, for example, has the task to mediate and translate from a scholarly discourse into news items. "Science" cannot "meet the public." See for example: </div><div><br /></div><div>Leydesdorff, L. (1993). Why the statement 'Plasma-membrane transport is rate-limiting for its metabolism in rat-liver parenchymal cells' cannot meet the public. <i>Public Understanding of Science, </i>2(4), 351-364. </div>
<div><br /></div><div>However, the representation of a concept in a different communication system of reference can always be frames as "misinformation" from the perspective of the represented system. A translation is necessarily involved. This is not "post-modern" because also the<i> trias politica</i> contains three different codes of communication. The same concept may have different semantics in the court or in parliament. There are no longer single meanings.</div><div><br /></div><div>In a High Culture these ambivalences can be solved because the top of the hierarchy can eventually decided what is the correct meaning. For example, "<i>Roma dixit":</i> misinformation is then heresy. In a pluralistic society, however, there is no single meaning. For example, what can be heroic in Catalonia can be considered as high-treason in the context of Spain. The European court may disagree with the Spanish high court because of using another code. </div><div id="signature_old"><div id="xfdbdd25ddfab403"><div id="x78c9f4c0540648e7b564d127ae9a7d74"><div><div id="signature_old"><div id="x068ffe68e305459"><div id="xd031ae4a00354d21ab008b16080cd048"><div><br /></div><div>Best, </div><div>Loet</div><div><br /></div><div id="signature_old"><div id="x4f407acb80d4411"><div id="x775eaf3ae7f6460082dcdda3faf877c6"><div id="signature_old"><div id="x920d19d74fc84b0"><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74">
<div class="MsoNormal" align="center" style="text-align:center" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#1F497D">
<hr size="3" width="100%" align="center" />
</span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">Loet
Leydesdorff <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">Professor emeritus,
University of Amsterdam<br />
Amsterdam School of Communication Research (ASCoR)<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net" title="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">loet@leydesdorff.net </span></a></span><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">; </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.leydesdorff.net/" title="http://www.leydesdorff.net/"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">http://www.leydesdorff.net/</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D"> <br />
</span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Associate Faculty, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/spru/"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">SPRU, </span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">University of Sussex; <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Guest Professor </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.zju.edu.cn/english/"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">Zhejiang Univ.</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">, Hangzhou; Visiting Professor, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.istic.ac.cn/Eng/brief_en.html"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">ISTIC, </span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Beijing;<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Visiting Fellow, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/"><span style="font-size:
9.0pt">Birkbeck</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">,
University of London; <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";mso-fareast-font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin;color:#44546A;mso-ansi-language:
EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:9.0pt"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en">http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en</a></span></span></div><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74"><span style="color: rgb(68, 84, 106);" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><div id="x6d48cd6784e049409ff4972e00ee71a6"><div style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"></div>
<div><div><font face="Calibri" style="font-size: 9pt;">ORCID: <a href="http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7835-3098">http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7835-3098</a>;</font><font face="Calibri, sans-serif" style="font-size: 11pt;"> </font></div></div><div id="signature_old" style="font-size: 11pt; font-family: Calibri, sans-serif;"><div id="x4f407acb80d4411"><div id="x775eaf3ae7f6460082dcdda3faf877c6"><div id="signature_old"><div id="x920d19d74fc84b0"><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></span></div><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div><div><br /></div>
<div>------ Original Message ------</div>
<div>From: "Joseph Brenner" <<a href="mailto:joe.brenner@bluewin.ch">joe.brenner@bluewin.ch</a>></div>
<div>To: <a href="mailto:fis@listas.unizar.es">fis@listas.unizar.es</a></div>
<div>Cc: <a href="mailto:pcmarijuan.iacs@aragon.es">pcmarijuan.iacs@aragon.es</a></div>
<div>Sent: 1/17/2020 10:48:14 AM</div>
<div>Subject: [Fis] LECTURE RESPONSES UP TO 16.01.20</div><div><br /></div>
<div id="x3318da19bcc84a5"><blockquote cite="27C79453C6FD46D4B7FF2DBE8E4A8996@laptopr7q1bsbb" type="cite" class="cite2">
<div class="Section1">
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">Dear Friends and Colleagues,<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">As our discussion is taking place, the
governments of <st1:country-region w:st="on" xmlns:w="#unknown2" xmlns:st1="#unknown1">Russia</st1:country-region> and
the <st1:country-region w:st="on" xmlns:w="#unknown2" xmlns:st1="#unknown1"><st1:place w:st="on">United States</st1:place></st1:country-region>
are being recognized as the sources of massive amounts of disinformation. Their
objective in part was the election and is now the re-election of Trump as
President of the <st1:place w:st="on" xmlns:w="#unknown2" xmlns:st1="#unknown1"><st1:country-region w:st="on">United
States</st1:country-region></st1:place>. My personal view is that this
disinformation is linked to and supports extreme right-wing economic, political
and fundamentalist belief systems. I was therefore glad to see the agreement,
in the responses to my Lecture, that disinformation is not only an important
topic for further discussion in the context of the Foundations of Information
Science, but one which some members of our group may be in a position to
counter. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">I will present my comments in two groups, the
first today are on the responses with which I agree, in a week or so on
responses with which I disagree. As people who have followed my work might
expect, there is no absolute separation between these categories. I also will
try to give some sense of the dynamics of our dialogue. They will be indexed
simply to facilitate (cross-) reference.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify;text-indent:35.4pt"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">I look forward to your responses as the basis
for the next phase of the discussion.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">Thank you and best wishes,<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">Joseph<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A. AGREEMENT<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.I 02.01 Jose Javier emphasized the public
origins of disinformation, its relation to ‘intelligence’ and its
use by totalitarian regimes, exactly along the lines above. I tend to agree
with his suggestion that more than having a structure close to if not identical
to information, disinformation IS information, BAD information. Using the ‘dis’
as an oversimplified distinction in structure tends to gloss over the
pernicious operation of information with the properties we decry. Perhaps
another term would convey the idea better or more simply. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.2 02.01 I am grateful to Stan for pointing
to the distinction between concepts and examples. I suggest we keep this
comment in mind in our further discussion.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.3 03.01 Mark J. responded to a comment by Stan
with which I disagreed, namely, that there was something less primary about
disinformation. Stan interposes an actor, a ‘searcher’ who analyzes
information and ‘reports’ on it, presumably distorting it in the
process. In any case, I think we agree that disinformation is a process –
one of <i>disinforming. </i>I disagree
with Mark however regarding agents and a consequent theory of agency (which has
value in other respects). My view is that one cannot have the intentionality to
disinform without an agent, and this can be an individual present at the start
of the process. I suggest to Stan here that his two-step process is not
absolutely necessary: the agent, the intentional ‘disinformer’,
takes whatever material is available and mis- or should I say dis-uses it.
Mark’s point about the necessity of even the smell (or stink) of an
‘informational police’ is certainly correct, but what is an acceptable
alternative? Actually, police are simply tools of government, good or bad. We
are talking here about responsible collective interactions as FIS members with
– whom? We don’t know yet.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"> <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.4 06.01 Karl makes a number of useful
points.<i> </i>The most important is the
confusion, in English between </span></font><i><font size="2" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";font-style:italic">disinformation</span></font></i><font size="2" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:"Lucida Sans Unicode"">, as the suppression, non-dissemination of
inconvenient data or theories, and <i>disinformation
</i>as the dissemination of false data. The confusion is not present in
French, where the second is <i>désinformation</i>,
and, as I learn, also in German and Hungarian. So what do we do? Push for the
use of desinformation in English, which requires explanation, or something else?
In any case, both share the notion of intentionality.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode""><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode"">Finally, I liked the way Karl pats us all on the back,
but the objective remains also to get <i>some</i>
message to <i>someone</i> outside the
group.<font color="navy"> <i> </i><o:p></o:p></font></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.5 05.01 Pedro makes several important
restatements of the biological origins of the equivalents of disinformation. (Until
further notice, <i>pace </i>Karl, we
have to continue to use this form.) The exacerbation of disinformation due to
the new technologies also needs to be emphasized. What we have not yet
identified is the distinguishing ‘marker’ of disinformation. It is
a ‘fake’ as Pedro says <i>qua </i>content,
but it looks exactly like the information people are used to getting. It can easily
mimic credibility and authority, even if one has to be really ignorant not to
see through it (45% of the <st1:place w:st="on" xmlns:w="#unknown2" xmlns:st1="#unknown1"><st1:country-region w:st="on">U.S.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
population?)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">The question of balance is more interesting and
possibly more encouraging. Balance in seeing and presenting other, alternative
views to one’s own is an indication of openness and tolerance - at last,
a few positive words! There is little balance in disinformation. In fact,
perhaps <i>absence</i> of pros and cons
in the same message, might be a marker for disinformation.<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.6 09.01 This is perhaps the most serious,
clear and urgent call so far, by Terry, for an adequate intellectual level of
analysis of disinformation and related issues. Terry’ most important
point, which I hope will receive further discussion as son as possible, regards
the role IS4SI has to play and in front of what audience. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">I wish to emphasize that I was not making
some kind of Luddite argument against cybernetic approaches (my note about
Terry’s of 10.1) I only wished to insure that they have adequate
grounding in non-computational science and philosophy. I hope, or even ask,
that Terry could expand on his ideas on an informational immune system. This
would be the next step after the identification of the ‘markers’
for the dis-ease. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.7 09.01 More than just a supplementary
question, I feel this note of Mark’s goes to the heart of the
technological <i>vs. </i>the non-technological
aspects of the problem. I note his consideration of information and disinformation
in tandem, at the level of institutions and systems. (For me, a husband and
wife, or two friends or colleagues are systems). I also agree that
over-application of computer systems to institutions may result in information <i>loss. </i> In the context of this discussion,
it may actually be a tool employed by people who intend to disinform. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.8 08.01 Mark’s follow-up note points
to one success of AI that I suggest be followed up separately. More
specifically, he asks if machine learning, “might ground an insight”
into the functional difference between information and disinformation, along
the lines of Terry’s considerations. My response is the same: if yes, fine,
but human learning is also required, and must be supported. If not, there will
be no one left but machines, and I am sure they will be able to pursue ‘truth’
on their own. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">A.9 15.01 In supporting Terry, Pedro again
calls for a role for IS4SI, initially internally with the formation of a
special working group. Its purpose would be to see what both theoretical and
applied contributions we might make. However, it is not the computer world as
such that will result in ‘voting every afternoon’, in Arbib’s
<i>fuite en avant.</i> when only X%
(Pedro, please give us the right number) of the members of FIS have responded
to this Lecture. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy">The point about authentification, however,
joins the previous ones about markers and functional differences; and
constitutes a first real mini-consensus on a target for further work. <o:p></o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="text-align:justify"><font size="2" color="navy" face="Lucida Sans Unicode"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:10.0pt;font-family:
"Lucida Sans Unicode";color:navy"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal"><font size="2" face="Arial"><span lang="EN-GB" style="font-size:
10.0pt;font-family:Arial"><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>
</div>
</blockquote></div>
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