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body { font-family: Tahoma; font-size: 11pt; }--></style></head><body><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412"><blockquote cite="1507064442.961616815@f14.my.com" type="cite" class="cite2"><p dir="ltr">Nobody of us is able to provide an operative framework and a single (just one!) empirical testable prevision able to assess "information". <br /></p></blockquote><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">Dear colleague, </div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">One should not confuse the confusion on the list with the clarity of the concept information in information theory. This definition is operational (e.g., in bits). Your computer would not work without this definition (1 byte = 8 bits). The problem is that this definition of information as uncertainty is counter-intuitive. </div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">The search for an intuitive definition of information has led to unclear definitions. In a recent book, Hidalgo (2015, at p. 165), for example, has defined “information” with reference “to the order embodied in codified sequences, such as those found in music or DNA, while <i>knowledge and knowhow </i>refer to the ability of a system to process information.” However, codified knowledge can be abstract and—like music—does not have to be “embodied” (e.g., Cowan, David, & Foray, 2000). </div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">Beyond Hidalgo’s position, Floridi (2010, p. 21) proposed “a general definition of information” according to which “the well-formed data are <i>meaningful</i>” (italics of the author). Luhmann (1995, p. 67) posits that “all information has meaning.” In his opinion, information should therefore be considered as a selection mechanism. Kauffman et al. (2008, at p. 28) added to the confusion by defining information as “natural selection.” </div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">Against these attempt to bring information and meaning under a single denominator--and to identify variation with selection--I argue for a dualistic perspective (as did Prof. Zhong in a previous email). Information and meaning should not be confounded. Meaning is generated from redundancies (Bateson, 1972, p. 420; Weaver, 1949; see Leydesdorff <i style="font-size: 11pt;">et al.</i>, 2017).</div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">Best,</div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;">Loet</div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><br /></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><b>References:</b></div><div id="xa1cf249fe1ca412" style="direction: ltr;"><div id="xcf19e620d5854c6cbbd9f983086da4a9">
<div id="x15e0e0a182fd4d928903b2a065ba6dd9">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2"><o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></font></p></div><div id="xab5840a71ed1414f80ac5af87ca54f0c">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2"><o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></font></p></div><div id="xdd444639eff1471390092eb671a10b99">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></p></div><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font face="Tahoma" size="2">Bateson, G. (1972). <i style="text-indent: -0.5in;">Steps
to an Ecology of Mind</i>. New York: Ballantine.</font></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2" face="Tahoma">Cowan, R.,
David, P., & Foray, D. (2000). The Explicit Economics of Knowledge
Codification and Tacitness. <i style="text-indent: -0.5in;">Industrial
and Corporate Change, 9</i>(2), 211-253.</font></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2" face="Tahoma"><span>Floridi, L. (2010). </span><i style="text-indent: -0.5in;">Information: A very short introduction</i><span>.
Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2" face="Tahoma">Hidalgo, C.
(2015). <i>Why Information Grows: The
Evolution of Order, from Atoms to Economies</i>. New York: Basic Books.<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></font></p><div id="x07ac80f52f5746f7a1bbce5504d2f8c8">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2" face="Tahoma">Kauffman, S., Logan, R. K., Este, R., Goebel, R., Hobill, D.,
& Shmulevich, I. (2008). Propagating organization: an enquiry. <i>Biology and Philosophy, 23</i>(1), 27-45. <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></font></p><div id="x70cc0e79e6db478f8eb4530b04cff5e7">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font size="2" face="Tahoma"><span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">Leydesdorff, L., Johnson, M., & Ivanova, I. (2017). Toward a Calculus of Redundancy: Signification, Codification, and Anticipation in Cultural Evolution. </span>
<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);"><a href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3030525" style="">https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3030525</a></span>
<span style="background-color: rgb(255, 255, 255);">.</span></font></p><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font face="Tahoma" size="2">Luhmann, N. ([1984] 1995). <i>Social Systems</i>. Stanford,
CA: Stanford University Press.<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></font></p><div id="x55c619d6a2ce4e7ea38b2ed86250f4be">
<p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal;tab-stops:center 3.0in" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><font face="Tahoma" size="2">Weaver, W.
(1949). Some Recent Contributions to the Mathematical Theory of Communication.
In C. E. Shannon & W. Weaver (Eds.), <i>The
Mathematical Theory of Communication</i> (pp. 93-117.). <span lang="NL">Urbana: University of Illinois Press.<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></font></p></div><p class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin-left:.5in;mso-add-space:auto;
text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><br /></p><div id="signature_old"><div id="xa795a68c998543b"><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74">
<div class="MsoNormal" align="center" style="text-align:center" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";color:#1F497D">
<hr size="3" width="100%" align="center" />
</span></div>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">Loet
Leydesdorff <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">Professor,
University of Amsterdam<br />
Amsterdam School of Communication Research (ASCoR)<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net" title="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">loet@leydesdorff.net </span></a></span><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D">; </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.leydesdorff.net/" title="http://www.leydesdorff.net/"><span style="font-size:10.0pt">http://www.leydesdorff.net/</span></a></span><span style="font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D"> <br />
</span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Associate Faculty, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/spru/"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">SPRU, </span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">University of Sussex; <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Guest Professor </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.zju.edu.cn/english/"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">Zhejiang Univ.</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">, Hangzhou; Visiting Professor, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.istic.ac.cn/Eng/brief_en.html"><span style="font-size:9.0pt">ISTIC, </span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Beijing;<o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size: 9pt;">Visiting Fellow, </span><span style="color:#44546A"><a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/"><span style="font-size:
9.0pt">Birkbeck</span></a></span><span style="font-size: 9pt;">,
University of London; <o:p xmlns:o="urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:office"></o:p></span></p>
<span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";mso-fareast-font-family:
Calibri;mso-fareast-theme-font:minor-latin;color:#44546A;mso-ansi-language:
EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><span style="font-size:9.0pt"><a href="http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en">http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en</a></span></span></div><div id="x337b22579712426abf55c20f258d0a74"><span style="font-size:11.0pt;font-family:"Calibri","sans-serif";mso-fareast-font-family:
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text-indent:-.5in;line-height:normal" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40"><br /></p></div></div></div></div><blockquote cite="1507064442.961616815@f14.my.com" type="cite" class="cite2"><div id="mail-app-auto-default-signature">
</div></blockquote></div>
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