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</o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--></head><body lang=EN-US link="#0563C1" vlink="#954F72"><div class=WordSection1><p class=MsoPlainText>Dear Bob, Stan and colleagues, <o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText><o:p> </o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText style='margin-left:.5in'>The Shannon formula measures "capacity" for information, *not* information itself. Consider the "snow" pattern on a TV without a signal. Its Shannon measure is much higher than when a picture appears onscreen, yet we know that the snow pattern carries no information.<o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'>The expected information of a message that an event has taken place can be measured precisely in terms of bits of information using the Shannon formulas. As Weaver noted (and Shannon was aware), this concept of information (uncertainty) is counter-intuitive. It enables us among other things to distinguish between “information” and “meaningful information”. A screen with noise carries maximal information, but this information is not meaningful.<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'>Providing Shannon-type information with meaning presumes the specification of a system of reference; for example, an observer. Different from observed information, expected information is yet dimensionless (“a priori”). The analytical distinction between information processing and meaning processing enables us also to specify (perhaps measure as redundancy) the different meanings that can be provided to the same uncertainty by different systems of reference. For example, the white noise on the screen may be unexpected or not (since the antenna was not correctly plugged in). <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText style='margin-left:.5in'><span style='color:black'>“</span>The concept of information developed in this theory at first seems disappointing and bizarre—disappointing because it has nothing to do with meaning … I think, however, … that this analysis has so penetratingly cleared the air that one is now, perhaps for the first time, ready for a real theory of meaning.” (Weaver, 1949, p. 27)<span style='color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'><o:p> </o:p></span></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'>In my opinion, a “real theory of meaning” should enable us to specify/measure meaning as redundancy / reduction of uncertainty given information as uncertainty. I took this further in: </span>Loet Leydesdorff, Alexander Petersen, and Inga A. Ivanova, <a href="http://arxiv.org/abs/1507.05251">The Self-Organization of Meaning and the Reflexive Communication of Information.</a><i> Social Science Information </i>(in press).<br> <o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText>Best,<o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText>Loet<o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoNormal><o:p> </o:p></p><div class=MsoNormal align=center style='text-align:center'><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'><hr size=3 width="100%" align=center></span></div><p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'>Loet Leydesdorff </span><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'>Professor, University of Amsterdam<br>Amsterdam School of Communication Research (ASCoR)<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoNormal><a href="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net" title="mailto:loet@leydesdorff.net"><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:blue'>loet@leydesdorff.net </span></a><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'>; </span><a href="http://www.leydesdorff.net/" title="http://www.leydesdorff.net/"><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:blue'>http://www.leydesdorff.net/</span></a><span style='font-size:10.0pt;color:#1F497D'> <br></span><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Associate Faculty, </span><a href="http://www.sussex.ac.uk/spru/"><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:blue'>SPRU, </span></a><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>University of Sussex; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Guest Professor </span><a href="http://www.zju.edu.cn/english/"><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:blue'>Zhejiang Univ.</span></a><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>, Hangzhou; Visiting Professor, </span><a href="http://www.istic.ac.cn/Eng/brief_en.html"><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:blue'>ISTIC, </span></a><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Beijing;<o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>Visiting Professor, </span><a name="_GoBack"></a><a href="http://www.bbk.ac.uk/"><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:blue'>Birkbeck</span></a><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:black'>, University of London; <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class=MsoNormal><a href="http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en"><span style='font-size:9.0pt;color:blue'>http://scholar.google.com/citations?user=ych9gNYAAAAJ&hl=en</span></a><o:p></o:p></p><p class=MsoNormal><o:p> </o:p></p><p class=MsoPlainText><span style='color:black'><o:p> </o:p></span></p></div></body></html>